January 24, 2008

Extreme poverty is often accompanied by environmental degradation, social unrest, and poor public health. Cuba, however, presents an unusual case of a country that in its worst economic times pushed for greater conservation, and thereby enhanced its long-term environmental and economic security. After being hit with a severe economic crisis following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba pushed for alternative agricultural practices, established new nature preserves and marine conservation legislation, and aggressively pursued energy-saving policies. Though born of necessity, Cuba’s reduction of energy consumption enhanced the health of the environment and freed up economic resources for social programs such as public education and healthcare. Because the country managed to maintain rates of life expectancy, infant mortality, and literacy comparable to those of the United States and Great Britain while the contraction of domestic industry slashed carbon emissions, the World Wildlife Fund cited Cuba as the only country that has achieved sustainable development. Cuba’s experience serves as a useful example to other economically struggling countries for how to address the immediate needs of the population despite economic hardship, while preserving the natural resources necessary for prolonged development.

Most conflict-torn or economically distressed regions tend to get “trapped in a cycle that repeatedly channels scarce resources into managing crises and their consequences, rather that into development,” [1] thereby exacerbating common sources of tension and conflict. Not only is environmental degradation a frequent consequence of hardship, it often makes conditions worse. Poor resource management can lead to over-pollution, economic strain, social instability, and environmental degradation. In response to the devastating effects of its economic crash and subsequent fiscal and political obstacles to importing necessary goods, Cuba implemented policies and practices such as organic agriculture, marine wildlife preservation, and reforestation aimed at conserving its existing resources and extracting the most possible use from them. Unlike other nations that face similar hardships, Cuba prevented the looting of its resources, thereby protecting the environment. Environmental conservation played an important role in enhancing the security of Cuban citizens by ensuring access to food, preserving livelihoods, and reducing risks posed by natural disasters.

In the early 1990s, Cuba suffered the worst economic crisis since Fidel Castro came to power in 1959. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Comecon trading bloc Cuba “lost 80 percent of its export market and its imports fell by 80 percent,”[2] leaving it with very little foreign exchange with which to purchase goods, particularly foodstuffs and energy. This sharp deterioration of international trade sparked the “Special Period in Peacetime,” the official name for the economic depression triggered by the loss of Soviet trade in 1989-1990 and lasting through the following decade. Between 1989 and 1993, fuel imports fell by 76 percent.[3] Cuba lost most of its access to oil and could no longer re-export petroleum, which severely constricted its foreign exchange.[4] In 1992, the United States exacerbated legal barriers to trade by passing the Cuban Democracy Act, barring any ship that docked in a Cuban harbor from U.S. ports for six months. The law forced companies to choose between selling to the constricting Cuban market, or the thriving American one. The Helms-Burton Act of 1996 further tightened the U.S. embargo, imposing sanctions on foreign companies who traded with the island as well. This made it nearly impossible for Cuba, with almost no foreign exchange or international credit, to buy foreign goods. The island had to find ways to be as self-sufficient as possible if it was to survive.

Most countries that face a similar inability to get necessary imports often see a raiding of whatever resources are at hand.  Severe scarcity tends to “[undermine] conservation efforts, as meeting immediate survival needs take precedence over consideration of managing resources for the long term.”[5] As the limited resources available to a state or community are further directed toward alleviating the stresses caused by economic or social crisis, rather than toward sustainable development, a vicious cycle of resource degradation is created. Although resource mismanagement does not create conflict in most cases, “familiar sources of conflict are being amplified by environmental stresses.”[6] An unhealthy environment, therefore, contributes to an unstable society. Though many people supported environmental conservation policies in Cuba before the Special Period, its faltering economy made conservation a necessity for the island’s security and, therefore, such legislation moved to the forefront of the political agenda.

An example of an eco-friendly response that sets the Cuban experience apart from that of many other countries was the reorientation of agricultural methods to salvage productivity. The agricultural sector was hit particularly hard during the Special Period. Between 1989 and 1992, fertilizer imports, which accounted for 94 percent of all fertilizer used on the island, plummeted from 1.3 million metric tons to 300,000 metric tons -- a decline of about 77 percent.[7] Similarly, pesticide imports that previously accounted for 97 percent of all pesticide use fell from 80 million pesos to less than 30 million pesos, a drop of about 63 percent.[8] Furthermore, “imports of wheat and grain for human consumption dropped by more than 50 percent, while other foodstuffs declined even more.”[9] The resulting food shortages caused by a paralyzed Cuban agricultural sector “decreased caloric intake by 38 percent from 2,908 calories per day per person in 1989 to 1,863 in 1994.”[10] Cuba had to find a way to feed its people while using very little oil, chemicals, or foreign machinery. Since previous methods of farming that involved imported chemicals and plant seeds were no longer affordable, most farms began to function organically, training draft animals to plow, using compost as fertilizer, and employing natural predators and insects for pest control and soil aeration. Although there was a “productivity decline associated with this model,”[11] as one would expect after such a crippling degeneration in input availability, the grassroots push toward organic and low-impact agriculture prevented Cubans from starving. The country managed to address the immediate needs of its population while improving environmental conditions, paving the way for sustainable development, and therefore, enhancing economic and food security for the future. This is an organizational and political feat that few nations have been able to achieve in times of crisis.

Another unique and innovative response to the challenges of this period was the rise of urban agriculture. A major problem facing Cubans at that time was the transportation of food grown in rural areas to the major cities, a challenge that jeopardized the health of much of the urban population. With the rise of organic and low-input garden plots, or “organopónicos,” built throughout the city overtop unused parking lots or any spare space available, citizens began to grow their own vegetables. This secured access to healthy food for city-dwellers and reduced the energy burden of transporting it from rural areas. Due to the same economic and political constraints as rural agriculture, urban vegetable plots also were, and continue to be, mostly farmed organically because chemical fertilizers or pesticides are simply unaffordable. This form of agriculture is more labor intensive than its large-scale counterpart, but it is also more sustainable. It has been estimated that around “50 percent of Havana’s vegetables come from inside the city, while in other towns and cities urban gardens produce from 80 to more than 100 percent of what they need,”[12] leaving produce that cooperatives can sell for a profit.

In this way, the Cubans have used their resources efficiently, employing low-cost and low-impact organic farming methods to provide sufficient food for the population, in both rural and urban areas. This allowed for the use of what limited energy resources the island maintained to be used in other areas to further development or address social needs. Furthermore, increases in food prices and the premium paid for organic produce “turned urban agriculture into a very profitable activity for Cubans,”[13] enhancing their economic prospects, as well. Economic reforms in 1993 and 1994 allowed farming cooperatives to sell whatever produce they grew in excess of the government quota, creating the opportunity to earn a profit through farming. Between 1994 and 1998, vegetable production doubled, and then doubled again in 1999.[14]  Despite the benefits of urban and organic agriculture, however, Cuba still faces great challenges in providing its citizens complete food security. The country continues to issue food rations, supplies are quickly depleted, and it is often difficult for citizens to acquire certain goods without hard currency. While the average daily caloric intake per capita bounced back to 2,490 by the start of the new century, it still falls short of both the regional and global averages of 2,850 and 2,808 kilocalories, respectively.[15]

Resource management in Cuba was not limited to food production, however. The Cuban government also established nature and marine wildlife preserves in this period. In 1991, for example, the government established the Ojito de Agua Fauna refuge, which was combined with two other natural reserves to make the Alejandro de Humboldt National Park in 1996.[16] In 1995, the ecological treasure Zapata Swamp, the largest wetland in both Cuba and the Caribbean[17] and home to many endemic bird and fauna species, was designated a “Special Region for Sustainable Development” by the Cuban National System of Protected Areas (SNAP).[18] This official status influences development policies in the area, thus helping to protect this park, which accounts for 15 percent of Cuba’s overall tree cover, from illegal logging.[19] As of 2007, the World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA) records 70 protected areas in Cuba, covering 15.06 percent of its surface. That is substantially higher than the regional average for the Caribbean of 8.17 percent.[20] Protecting the scenery, like rainforests, coral reefs, and coastlines, also boosts tourism, which is one of the country’s main sources of income and foreign exchange.

Included in those 70 preserved areas are marine territories. In 1995, the National Center for Protected Areas (CNAP) was created and the Ministry of the Fishing Industry began to create “Zones under Special Regimes of Use and Protection,” which serve as fishery reserves by creating protected marine areas.[21] These reserves allow fish populations to replenish, thereby preventing overfishing, which destroys the balance of the marine ecosystem and cripples the seafood industry. Although the entire section of the Cuban fishing industry devoted to domestic consumption had been paralyzed by lack of resources, the fleet that harvested more expensive seafood for the export market, like shrimp and spiny lobster, remained active.[22] Seafood was a high-value export for the country, but “officials with the Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera [Ministry of the Fishing Industry] do have the long-term sustainability of their fishery resources in mind.”[23] This governmental branch developed “management plans” for seafood resources that included monitoring the state-controlled fishing enterprises and establishing quotas on spiny lobster and other high-value species.[24] These efforts continue into today. Despite turtle shells being a lucrative export, in January 2008, the Cuban government banned the hunting of all marine turtles that are endangered in the Caribbean, particularly the hawksbill turtle. The Canadian International Development Agency has volunteered to fund programs that will explore alternative industries in the areas that profited most from the turtle shell trade, as well as modernize fishing fleets and educate the population to protect turtle nests and eggs.[25]

Despite such efforts, however, Cuba’s environmental record is not perfect. Firewood, for example, was cut for household fuel,[26] as could be expected in times of economic crisis. Indeed, one report states that the “increased demand for firewood has brought about the indiscriminate cutting of trees and bushes, adding to Cuba’s already serious problem of soil erosion.”[27] What sets the country apart from others facing similar situations, however, is the concerted effort of the government to direct its scarce resources towards combating such actions. The country even managed to increase the amount of tree cover despite the economic hardships. Between 1990 and 2000, forest area in Cuba increased by 13 percent, as compared to an 11 percent average decrease in Central America and the Caribbean, and a 2 percent average decrease worldwide.[28]

The country’s efforts to protect the environment have enhanced natural buffers and thereby have “[reduced] the vulnerability of communities to costly natural disasters.”[29] On an island that is often hit by tropical storms and hurricanes, increasing tree cover helps prevent the flooding and erosion that such storms create. Hurricane Mitch hit Central America in 1998, showing how “the process of deforestation, biodiversity loss, and land degradation can compromise, and in some cases strip, the buffering capacity of social and ecological systems.”[30] Flooding and mudslides, exacerbated by soil degradation and deforestation, create great social upheaval by forcing people from their homes, and, often, into crowded, unsanitary conditions. Many people lose their possessions and the productivity of farmland is destroyed as top soil is washed away, endangering livelihoods and diverting already scarce resources into recovering the food, tools, or possessions that were lost.

Other environment-friendly government programs include policies to reduce energy consumption. Plagued with extensive rolling blackouts that paralyzed daily activity, officials went door to door replacing inefficient energy appliances with more efficient alternatives. Traditional incandescent light bulbs, for example, were replaced with low energy-consuming compact fluorescent bulbs, which are “four times more efficient and last up to 10 times longer than [incandescent light bulbs].”[31] The government has also “taken important steps toward developing wind and solar power as well as ethanol from sugar cane [waste],” according to Achim Steiner, the executive director of the UN Environmental Program.[32] Although the real impact of energy-saving appliances may be overstated, the government’s awareness of the need for energy conservation and its active steps to achieve it are laudable.

Cuba’s innovative ways of reducing energy and oil consumption have not only built a foundation for sustainable development, but have also reduced spending on energy imports, freeing up money to be spent in other areas, such as healthcare and education, both of which are provided free to the public. That Cuba could maintain these effective social services despite the crash of its industrial system earned it the honor of being recognized as the only country in the world that has achieved sustainable development, according to the 2006 Living Planet report from the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). ‘Sustainable development,’ according to the WWF, requires minimal levels of carbon emissions coinciding with a certain standard of living, measured by life expectancy, infant mortality, and literacy rates, among other factors.

Cuba has been able to share its experience in resource management with other Caribbean nations that face similar economic hurdles. Experts have consulted both Haitian and Jamaican officials on instituting nationwide programs to replace incandescent bulbs with fluorescent ones. The Cuban government has even pledged to donate 30,000 light bulbs to Jamaican homes in east Kingston.[33] In this way, Cuba is using its experience in cutting energy waste as an example to guide countries who share similar development constraints.

Cuba is a country with very limited economic resources, yet it has managed to provide its citizens with their basic needs in a region that is rife with extreme poverty by using its resources to their fullest extent. Furthermore, it has minimized the environmental degradation that often plagues developing countries and hurts their prospects for sustainable development. Although many ways to reduce energy consumption and make full use of resources in a sustainable manner involve localized solutions, Cuba has accrued experience with conservation practices that it can share with other developing countries. Even organic farming techniques can be taught, although they rely heavily on local knowledge of indigenous plants, animal species, and soil and weather conditions. In fact, many Cuban farmers learned organic techniques from Australian farmers who came to the island in 1993 “to teach permaculture, a system based on sustainable agriculture which uses far less energy.”[34]  The basics of low energy or organic farming can be passed on to other nations, with necessary localized knowledge developing over time.

Despite the progress that Cuba has made in environmental legislation, the country still faces serious challenges to maintaining current conservation advances. Cuba, in an effort to “ease the bottleneck caused by shortages in imported fuels…has gone all out to increase domestic production and use of crude oil,” including exploring and drilling  for oil in areas that were “formerly considered environmentally fragile, for example in coastal areas.”[35] Both the process of oil exploration and extraction are potentially very damaging to the environment. In addition, Cuba now imports up to 100,000 heavily subsidized barrels of oil a day from Venezuela, using it to revive the industrial sector and large-scale farming. Cuba has also seen its tourism industry boom, igniting demand for development and energy that could seriously threaten the preservation of coastlines and forests. Cuba will need to find a way to maintain its conservation efforts in the face of this renewed development.

Cuba’s environmental zeal grew out of necessity and is associated largely with great hardship and crippled productivity. Nonetheless, Cuba is unique in that the government went out of its way to ensure lasting protection of the resources that allow sustainable development, including the coastlines, fish reserves, and rainforests, even when the use of such resources would have been a quick remedy to the short term needs of the Special Period. Cuba had the foresight to protect its environment for the future, while at the same time instituting innovative policies that addressed the urgent needs of the population. In this way, the Cuban experience provides an example to other resource-poor nations for how to protect against environmental degradation that damages long-term security, while addressing present-day needs.

 

Written By: Danielle Barav

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